[36] According to one story, when he was asked to name the three most important elements in oratory, he replied "Delivery, delivery and delivery! He also practised speaking in front of a large mirror. [181] As Burke also points out, in his later and more "mature" political career, Demosthenes no longer criticised "theorika"; in fact, in his Fourth Philippic (341–340 BC), he defended theoric spending. Dover's arguments were refuted by Edward M. Harris, who concluded that, although we cannot be sure about the outcome of the trial, the speech was delivered in court, and that Aeschines' story was a lie. J.-C. à 336 av. [185] Nevertheless, Philip, in his letter to the council and people of Athens, mentioned by Demosthenes, places himself "with the rest of the Greeks". The latter was no pacifist but came to eschew a policy of aggressive interventionism in the internal affairs of the other Greek cities. [142] Moreover, his delivery was not accepted by everybody in antiquity: Demetrius Phalereus and the comedians ridiculed Demosthenes' "theatricality", whilst Aeschines regarded Leodamas of Acharnae as superior to him. [123] Nevertheless, the same scholar underscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. On dit que Philippe de Macédoine ayant lu quelques harangues que Démosthène avait prononcées contre lui, plein d'admiration avoua de bonne foi, que lui-même il se serait laissé entraîner & lui aurait donné l'armée à commander. Dès lors, l'affrontement direct entre Philippe et Athènes apparaît inévitable. "[111] Such a reception, the circumstances of the case, Athenian need to placate Alexander, the urgency to account for the missing funds, Demosthenes' patriotism and wish to set Greece free from Macedonian rule, all lend support to George Grote's view that Demosthenes was innocent, that the charges against him were politically-motivated, and that he "was neither paid nor bought by Harpalus. Histoire De Philippe, Roi De Macédoine Et Le Père D'alexandre Le Grand...: Olivier, Claude-Matthieu: Amazon.com.mx: Libros Cette volonté d'implantation macédonienne en Grèce du Nord-Est provoque des révoltes, notamment celle de Byzance, soutenue par Athènes. En 352 av. The orators often resorted to "character assassination" tactics (δῐᾰβολή, diabolḗ; λοιδορία, loidoría), both in the courts and in the Assembly. [51], In Demosthenes' time, different political goals developed around personalities. The presiding officer of the Council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians. [10] Demosthenes asserted his guardians had left nothing "except the house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae" (30 minae = ½ talent). "[31] There are problems in Plutarch's account, however, and it is probable that Demosthenes actually suffered from rhotacism, mispronouncing ρ (r) as λ (l). Philippe II (v. 382-v. 336), créateur de la phalange macédonienne, vainquit les Grecs à Chéronée (338) et soumit pour deux siècles la Grèce à la tutelle macédonienne, malgré les efforts de Démosthène. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. [53] Demosthenes was to become fully engaged in this kind of litigation and he was also to be instrumental in developing the power of the Areopagus to indict individuals for treason, invoked in the ekklesia by a process called ἀπόφασις (apóphasis). "Demosthenes, however, he never mentioned at all, although Alexander held him in bitter hatred, and he himself had a private quarrel with him. [191], l. ^ According to Pausanias, Demosthenes himself and others had declared that the orator had taken no part of the money that Harpalus brought from Asia. [106], According to ancient writers, Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" (Greek: Μαργίτης)[107][108][109] and a boy. Par son ancêtre légendaire Caranos, fondateur de la dynastie argéade, il descendrait d'Héraclès. [29] These references hint at his respect for a historian he must have assiduously studied. Ainsi, Démosthène n’est cité qu’à dix reprises alors que Philippe est pour ainsi dire l’objet de la totalité du livre XVI, ce qui est moins le signe d’un rôle réduit de Démosthène que de celui de la cité d’Athènes dans son ensemble face à l’émergence historique de la Macédoine. Cette tradition est notamment rapportée par Isocrate dans son Discours à Philippe, ou de façon postérieure par l'historien Plutarque dans la Vie d'Alexandre. [123] He is criticised for having overrated Athens's capacity to revive and challenge Macedon. [78], The ekklesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to Amphipolis. Philippe commence par éliminer ses rivaux potentiels, dont le prétendant Argaios III de Macédoine, soutenu par Athènes, en 360. "[15] Demosthenes also sent envoys to Attalus, whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander. Ελέγξτε τις μεταφράσεις του "Philippe II de Macédoine" στα Ελληνικά. According to Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Intervention dans les affaires de Thessalie et de Phocide, Hégémonie macédonienne et la Ligue de Corinthe, « J'ai fait le bornage de la terre de Pélops », « A-t-on retrouvé les restes de Philippe II de Macédoine, le père d'Alexandre le Grand ? [26], It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000 drachmae (somewhat over 1½ talents) on the condition that Isaeus withdraw from a school of rhetoric he had opened and instead devote himself wholly to Demosthenes, his new pupil. [26] For his part, Aeschines stigmatised his intensity, attributing to his rival strings of absurd and incoherent images. Philippe estime que la Macédoine doit lutter contre la menace des peuples voisins, Péoniens et Illyriens notamment. [165] Modern scholars are divided: some reject them, while others, such as Blass, believe they are authentic. [38] In 363 and 359 BC, he assumed the office of the trierarch, being responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a trireme. La vie et la personnalité de Démosthène ont toujours fasciné les historiens. ", This page was last edited on 27 December 2020, at 06:14. In the case of Aristion, a youth from Plataea who lived for a long time in Demosthenes' house, Aeschines mocks the "scandalous" and "improper" relation. [171] Nietzsche reduces the time of the judicial disputes to five years. [129], According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, Demosthenes represented the final stage in the development of Attic prose. Comme Thucydide, il pense que l'impérialisme est une loi universelle mais pour autant il ne le justifie pas, et face à Philippe de Macédoine il prône le rapprochement d'Athènes avec les Perses et Thèbes. ^ According to Tsatsos, the trials against the guardians lasted until Demosthenes was twenty four. ", The sentiments to which Demosthenes appeals throughout his numerous orations, are those of the noblest and largest patriotism; trying to inflame the ancient Grecian sentiment of an autonomous Hellenic world, as the indispensable condition of a dignified and desirable existence. According to this critique, Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could only survive unified under the leadership of Macedon. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted." Enfin, il prend Abdère, près de l'embouchure du Nestos, et Maronée (en) sur la côte thrace. [119], Plutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. [ Carlier, Pierre; ]. " Apparently, while still under Demosthenes' tutelage, Aristarchus killed and mutilated a certain Nicodemus of Aphidna. [99] After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plain near Chaeronea, where he defeated them. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes. Editeur : Armand Colin. [26] Peck believes that Demosthenes continued to study under Isaeus for the space of four years after he had reached his majority. According to Libanius, Eubulus passed a law making it difficult to divert public funds, including "theorika," for minor military operations. Il s’empare de Grynéion (en), près de Pergame, pour ensuite se diriger vers Pitané où Memnon de Rhodes, alors à Cyzique pour réprimer la cité, revient pour en assurer la défense. à partir de 306 avant J.-C. Chaque chef. [141] Thus he managed to project his ideas and arguments much more forcefully. D. Braund, "The Bosporan Kings and Classical Athens", 200. And why? [56] Contrary to Eubulus' policy, Demosthenes called for an alliance with Megalopolis against Sparta or Thebes, and for supporting the democratic faction of the Rhodians in their internal strife. E.M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 174–175. [109] Greeks used the word Margites to describe foolish and useless people, on account of the Margites. οὐ μόνον οὐχ Ἕλληνος ὄντος οὐδὲ προσήκοντος οὐδὲν τοῖς Ἕλλησιν, ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ βαρβάρου ἐντεῦθεν ὅθεν καλὸν εἰπεῖν, ἀλλ᾽ ὀλέθρου Μακεδόνος, ὅθεν οὐδ᾽ ἀνδράποδον σπουδαῖον οὐδὲν ἦν πρότερον πρίασθαι. [188], i. Philippe II de Macédoine (père d'Alexandre le Grand) 382 av. Weil agreed that Demosthenes never delivered Against Meidias, but believed that he dropped the charges for political reasons. [80] Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay. [153], In modern history, orators such as Henry Clay would mimic Demosthenes' technique. Il donne à son armée un entraînement strict et un armement repensé : le soldat macédonien reçoit un armement défensif (armure, cnémides, bouclier) plus léger que celui de l'hoplite, dont l'ensemble de l'équipement pèse environ 35 kg. When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only had half the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. C'est à ce moment que Démosthène compose la première de ses Philippiques. Moreover, says Grote, "it was not Athens only that he sought to defend against Philip, but the whole Hellenic world. Philippe augmente le nombre de fantassins et crée un bataillon d'élite, les hypaspistes, calqué sur le Bataillon sacré de Thèbes. À l'été 349 av. After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died. J.-C., Démosthène prononce la première de ses Olynthiennes afin d'encourager les Athéniens à soutenir militairement la Ligue. [182], g. ^ In the Third Olynthiac and in the Third Philippic, Demosthenes characterised Philip as a "barbarian", one of the various abusive terms applied by the orator to the king of Macedon. [135] In a now lost letter, Cicero, though an admirer of the Athenian orator, claimed that occasionally Demosthenes "nods", and elsewhere Cicero also argued that, although he is pre-eminent, Demosthenes sometimes fails to satisfy his ears. Roi polygame, comme telle est la coutume en Macédoine, Philippe aurait eu pas moins de sept épouses d'après un fragment de son biographe Satyros de Callatis préservé par Athénée[A 3]. [131] However, he gave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches and, therefore, his arguments were the products of careful study. [79] He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions that he might seize before the ratification. 1: pp. Au cours de l’été 336, Philippe est assassiné dans le théâtre d'Aigeai où il célèbre le mariage de sa fille Cléopâtre avec le roi d'Épire, Alexandre le Molosse, frère d’Olympias. Il est considéré par le philosophe péripatéticien Théophraste comme le plus grand des rois de Macédoine, non seulement par sa fortune, mais encore par sa sagesse et sa modération. One of his most effective skills was his ability to strike a balance: his works were complex so that the audience would not be offended by any elementary language, but the most important parts were clear and easily understood. [123] According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde, success may be a poor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by the ideals of democracy political liberty. Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.[100]. I think there can hardly be found two other orators, who, from small and obscure beginnings, became so great and mighty; who both contested with kings and tyrants; both lost their daughters, were driven out of their country, and returned with honour; who, flying from thence again, were both seized upon by their enemies, and at last ended their lives with the liberty of their countrymen. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. Philippe II de Macédoine (Biographies Historiques): Amazon.es: Corvisier, Jean-Nicolas: Libros en idiomas extranjeros Selecciona Tus Preferencias de Cookies Utilizamos cookies y herramientas similares para mejorar tu experiencia de compra, prestar nuestros servicios, entender cómo los utilizas para poder mejorarlos, y para mostrarte anuncios. [111] In 336 BC, the orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honour Demosthenes for his services to the city by presenting him, according to custom, with a golden crown. In 335 BC Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians, but, while he was campaigning in the north, Demosthenes spread a rumour—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by the Triballians. [138], Besides his style, Cicero also admired other aspects of Demosthenes' works, such as the good prose rhythm, and the way he structured and arranged the material in his orations. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, in which he argued effectively to gain from his guardians what was left of his inheritance. À l’automne, il intervient en Thessalie à l’appel de la cité de Larissa, ennemie de Phères. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in a war in Euboea against Philip, which ended in a stalemate. Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae, where Philip accompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. En outre, Philippe dote le fantassin d'une longue pique de 5 mètres de long environ, la sarisse, établissant ainsi les fondements de la phalange macédonienne. [49] All these speeches, which offer early glimpses of his general principles on foreign policy, such as the importance of the navy, of alliances and of national honour,[50] are prosecutions (γραφὴ παρανόμων, graphē paranómōn) against individuals accused of illegally proposing legislative texts. They were collected for the Library of Alexandria by Callimachus, who believed them genuine. His tendency to focus on delivery promoted him to use repetition, this would ingrain the importance into the audience's minds; he also relied on speed and delay to create suspense and interest among the audience when presenting to most important aspects of his speech. [68] Among other things, the plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with each ὁπλῑ́της (hoplī́tēs) to be paid only ten drachmas per month (two obols per day), which was less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens—implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. Rebutting historian Theopompus, the biographer insists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to these he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose". His crime, according to Aeschines, was to have betrayed his eromenos by pillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on the boy's inheritance. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501.[89]. 336 avant J.-C. Philippe de Macédoine meurt assassiné ; son fils Alexandre, dit le Grand, lui succède. The Macedonian army swiftly proclaimed Alexander III of Macedon, then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. [111], In Demosthenes' initial judicial orations, the influence of both Lysias and Isaeus is obvious, but his marked, original style is already revealed. [120] The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worth paying in the attempt to retain freedom and influence. Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes' relations with Aristarchus is still regarded as more than doubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes is known by name. Following his order, the ekklesia had no choice but to reluctantly adopt a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. A regrettable incident is reported. The courts fixed Demosthenes' damages at ten talents. Les philippiques - sur la couronne - contre ctesiphon GF: Amazon.es: Démosthène, Eschine: Libros en idiomas extranjeros Selecciona Tus Preferencias de Cookies Utilizamos cookies y herramientas similares para mejorar tu experiencia de compra, prestar nuestros servicios, entender cómo los utilizas para poder mejorarlos, y para mostrarte anuncios. La même année, à Athènes, le rhéteur Isocrate accueille favorablement cette paix en écrivant son discours politique Philippe, dans lequel il s'adresse directement au roi de Macédoine, l'invitant à réaliser l'union des cités grecques et à faire la guerre à la Perse achéménide, concrétisant ainsi l'idéal panhellénique. [64], In 352 BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at Thermopylae,[65] but the Macedonian victory over the Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook Demosthenes. [113] He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections, though politically-motivated,[111] to the crowning were arguably valid from a legal point of view. Demosthenes was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the 98th Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad. Dès lors, il peut s'en emparer facilement en 348 : Olynthe et Stagire (cité natale d'Aristote) sont entièrement rasées et leurs habitants vendus comme esclaves. He appealed to pathos through patriotism and introducing the atrocities that would befall Athens if it was taken over by Philip. [4] His father—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the local tribe, Pandionis, and lived in the deme of Paeania[5] in the Athenian countryside, was a wealthy sword-maker. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon, are you not ashamed to act the part of Thersites [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War]?" En août 338, les armées de Philippe et de son fils Alexandre (à la tête de la cavalerie) battent les troupes grecques coalisées à la bataille de Chéronée. J.-C. : il épouse la veuve de celui-ci, conformément à la coutume, et au cours de l'été 360, il est désigné comme tuteur de son neveu, le fils mineur de Perdiccas, Amyntas IV, qu'il écarte un peu plus tard en se faisant proclamer lui-même roi par l'assemblée du peuple macédonien. La vie et la personnalité de Démosthène ont toujours fasciné les historiens. I. Apostolidis, note 1229 (with further references), inarticulate and stammering pronunciation, "Demosthenes – Greek statesman and orator". Dans la foulée, il s'empare de Phères et se fait élire à la tête de la Ligue thessalienne. [16] In another speech, Aeschines brings up the pederastic relation of his opponent with a boy called Cnosion. Il affronte une situation difficile, puisque la survie du royaume de Macédoine est menacée par les Illyriens. J.-C., mort à Calaurie en 322 av. Il est le père d'Alexandre le Grand. [66], The theme of the First Philippic (351–350 BC) was preparedness and the reform of the Theoric fund,[f] a mainstay of Eubulus' policy. [5] Nevertheless, the accuracy of these allegations is disputed, since more than seventy years had elapsed between Gylon's possible treachery and Aeschines' speech, and, therefore, the orator could be confident that his audience would have no direct knowledge of events at Nymphaeum. Il doit ensuite se résoudre à accepter la suzeraineté de Bardylis, roi des Illyriens, dont il épouse la fille, Audata. Il s'empare au passage de cités qui sont des colonies ou des alliées d'Athènes, comme Amphipolis qu'il assiège en 357, Pydna ou Potidée. Hence, his style harmonises with his fervent commitment. [93] Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines. He also narrates the following story: Shortly after Harpalus ran away from Athens, he was put to death by the servants who were attending him, though some assert that he was assassinated. J.-C., mort assassiné en 336, est un roi de Macédoine de la dynastie des Argéades qui règne entre 359 et 336. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek in UCL, concludes that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist. [96], At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth, Acarnania and other states in the Peloponnese. Cherchez des exemples de traductions Démosthène dans des phrases, écoutez à la prononciation et apprenez la grammaire. He was unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honour and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty to Athens. E. M. Harris, "Demosthenes' Speech against Meidias", 117–118; J. H. Vince. Il se tourne alors vers l'est et occupe la Chalcidique. E. M. Burke, "The Early Political Speeches of Demosthenes", 175, 185. [15], In his speeches, Aeschines uses pederastic relations of Demosthenes as a means to attack him. [41] An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabled him to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. [120] On the other hand, Polybius, a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world, was highly critical of Demosthenes' policies. [132] From his part, George A. Kennedy believes that his political speeches in the ekklesia were to become "the artistic exposition of reasoned views". From then until the fourth centuryAD, copies of Demosthenes' orations multiplied and they were in a relatively good position to survive the tense period from the sixth until the ninth century AD. Démosthène - Patrice Brun - La vie et la personnalité de Démosthène ont toujours fasciné les historiens. [47] Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea. [21] According to Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philologist and philosopher, and Constantine Paparrigopoulos, a major modern Greek historian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates;[22] according to Cicero, Quintillian and the Roman biographer Hermippus, he was a student of Plato. Loin d'être un idéaliste naïf, il est l'un des principaux théoriciens des relations internationales. Malgré cet échec, Philippe a marqué les cités grecques par sa puissance et les menace désormais directement. Friedrich Blass, a German classical scholar, believes that nine more speeches were recorded by the orator, but they are not extant. Authors and scholars who flourished at Rome, such as Longinus and Caecilius, regarded his oratory as sublime. In his most brilliant speech,[112] On the Crown, Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. Sous la direction de Démosthène, la ville de Athènes, à laquelle on ajoute ensuite Thèbes, Il se révolta contre l'hégémonie macédonienne, mais les Athéniens et Thébains ont été défaits en Bataille de Chéronée en 338. Demosthenes (/dɪˈmɒs.θəniːz/; Greek: Δημοσθένης, romanized: Dēmosthénēs; Attic Greek: [dɛːmosˈtʰenɛːs]; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. Cette image de propagande est, jusqu'au XIXe siècle, prise pour une réalité, et présente la Grèce du Nord comme un pays sans culture digne de ce nom[5]. Les historiens et archéologues estiment que le corps de Philippe a été placé dans la nécropole royale de Vergina, site grec correspondant à celui de l'antique Aigai, première capitale du royaume de Macédoine, la tombe exacte faisant encore l'objet de discussions entre spécialistes[8]. When he first left the ekklesia (the Athenian Assembly) disheartened, an old man named Eunomus encouraged him, saying his diction was very much like that of Pericles. In 341 BC Demosthenes was sent to Byzantium, where he sought to renew its alliance with Athens. Améliorez sa vérifiabilité en les associant par des références à l'aide d'appels de notes. [m] Irrespective of their status, the speeches attributed to Demosthenes are often grouped in three genres first defined by Aristotle:[162], In addition to the speeches, there are fifty-six prologues (openings of speeches). [189], j. Böckh's position was soon endorsed by Arnold Schaefer and Blass. [90] He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen talents (equivalent to about 220 years of a labourer's income at standard wages, or 11 million dollars in terms of median U.S. annual incomes). According to James J. Murphy, Professor emeritus of Rhetoric and Communication at the University of California, Davis, his lifelong career as a logographer continued even during his most intense involvement in the political struggle against Philip. Get this from a library! Démosthène : ne prononçait pas de discours sans avoir un galet dans la bouche ", écrit Flaubert dans son Dictionnaire des idées reçues. J.-C., il investit la Thessalie et vainc Onomarchos à la bataille du Champ de Crocus. de 351 à 340 avant J.-C. Les Philippiques, harangues de Démosthène contre Philippe de Macédoine. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. It also left him open to allegations of malpractice. Bien traité, il y aurait appris l'art de la guerre en observant Épaminondas. J.-C., il remporte une grande victoire sur les Illyriens. Harpokration, Lexicon of the Ten Orators, § m6, Advice to Young Men on Greek Literature, Basil of Caesarea, § 8. [60] He thus laid the foundations for his future political successes and for becoming the leader of his own "party" (the issue of whether the modern concept of political parties can be applied in the Athenian democracy is hotly disputed among modern scholars). His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip". À l'appel de l'un des rois, il assiège la forteresse d'Héraion Teichos (en), au bord de la Propontide. The historian maintains that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. [136] The main criticism of Demosthenes' art, however, seems to have rested chiefly on his known reluctance to speak ex tempore;[137] he often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand. Philippe perd un œil au cours de la bataille. C. Wooten, "Cicero's Reactions to Demosthenes", 38–40. Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there was not always a clear distinction between "private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes to embark on his political career.